Pathophysiology and Pharmacology Glossary

Question: Discuss about thePathophysiology and Pharmacology Glossary. Answer: Toxicology Toxicology is the medical study dealing with the adverse effects of chemicals or toxic substance in living organism (Hayes and Kruger 2014). This field of scientific study involves investigating the mechanism by which harmful chemicals affects human body and cause harm. Study of toxicology is important to understand the risk associated with exposure to chemicals and develop appropriate risk-assessment approaches. The field of toxicology offers knowledge about the relevant treatment for toxic chemicals. The study involves study of both chemical compounds found in nature as well as pharmaceutically synthesized medical compounds. Toxicology is further divided into several branches to study particular issues of medical importance (Sturla et al. 2014). Transdermal Transdermal is related to the application or administration of medicines via the absorption through the skin and the medicines is mainly given an adhesive patch that is slowly absorbed into the bloodstream (Walters 2013). The examples of transdermal include transdermal patches and transdermal implants. Traditional method of medication delivery was invasive and had several side-effects. Hence transdermal was a new approach of drug administration to treat common and complex ailments in health care setting. In this method of drug delivery, a patch with medications is attached to the skin so that the medication permeates through the skin in controlled manner. One advantage of this mode of drug delivery is that medicines are directly administered into the bloodstream bypassing metaboloic activities of liver (Rai and Raghavan 2015). Transplantation Immunopathology It is the study of immune reactions that occurs in an organ allograft when it is transferred form a donor to a recipient. During transplantation of organs or tissues, adverse immune response takes place in the recipient as grafted tissues or organ is recognized as foreign. Hence, transplantation immunopathology helps to understand the mechanism that leads to tissue rejection. The study gives idea about the different immunopathology techniques that helps to detect or diagnose health issues arising due to organ allograft. The study covers aspects like graft infection and immune disease in organ grafts (ResearchGate 2017). Tricyclic Antidepressants Tricyclic antidepressants are medical compounds used to treat patients with depression, anxiety and other mood disorders. The chemical structure of these antidepressants consists of three rings of atoms and hence it has been given the name tricyclic. The main mode of action of the compound is blocking the transporters involved in reuptake of neurotransmitters and inhibiting uptake of neurotransmitters like norepinephrine and seronotonin. This form of action leads to the rise in the concentration of neurotransmitters in the synapse. This is useful for patients with depression as their clinical condition leads to imbalance in neurotransmitters and restoring the balance alleviates depression (Horn 2014). Triglycerides Triglyceride is an ester consisting of three molecules of fatty acids and one molecule of glycerol which form the backbone of many lipids and plays a major role as an energy source for human body (Smith 2017). It is most common lipid found in human body. As it is hydrpophobic, it cannot permeate into membranes. However, it binds to lipoproteins to travel through the blood. It provides the body with energy and extra calories are stored in the body in the form of triglycerides. The level of triglycerides determines the fat and alcohol intake of an individual. High level of triglycerides leads to risk of developing atherosclerosis, pancreatic and coronary heart diseases. The healthy level of triglycerides inside the body is 150 mg/dl (Nordestgaard and Varbo 2014). Osteoarthritis Osteoarthritis is a degenerative joint disease affecting the areas of knees, hips, finger, thumb, toes, lower back and neck (Arthritis.org, 2017). The cartilage covers the normal joint of each bones and it provides a gliding surface for movement of joints. Cartilage also acts as cushion to protect bones; however in people with osteoarthritis, the cartilage breaks down causing pain in joint areas and during movement. The symptoms of osteoarthritis worsen which further damage the cartilage and it may lead to permanent joint damage. The treatment of the clinical conditions varied from person to person (Mobasheri and Batt 2016). Osteomyelitis Osteomyelitis is the inflammation of the bone caused by microorganism which begins as acute infection and evolves into chronic health condition. Bone is normally resistant to bacterial colonization however events like surgeries, placement of prostheses and foreign disrupt the integrity of brain and leads to infection. This kind of bone infection is mainly cause by Staphylococcus aureus. Other factors involved in the pathogenesis of osteomyelitis include the immune status of affected person, vascularity of bone and virulence of the infecting microorganism (Birt et al. 2017). Osteonecrosis Osteonecrosis is the process of bone death occurring due to reduced flow of blood to the bones in the joints and it affects joints of knee, elbow, wrist and ankle. In case of people with healthy bones, old bones are replaced by new ones and this process keeps the bones stronger. In the condition of osteonecrosis, the bone collapse faster and new bone is not replaced at the same rate. It is either caused by disease or due to dislocation of joints that affects the blood supply to the bone. The other possible causes of osteonecrosis include exposure to radiation, excess alcohol use, clotting disorders and kidney transplant (Niams.nih.gov 2017). Osteoporosis Osteoporosis is the clinical condition in which body loses too much bone and it becomes weak and porous. The bones look like honeycombs when viewed microscopically and this indicates loss of bone density or bone mass. The symptom is seen after a fracture and the key symptoms include acute pain after fall, localized pain in the vertebral level and paravertebral spasms. Women and older people are more vulnerable to the risk of the disease. Post menopausal women above 50 years and men between 50-69 years should check their bone mineral density for early diagnosis and recovery (Milas-Ahi? et al. 2014). Osteosarcoma Osteosarcoma is the cancer of bones in which cancerous tumours are formed in the brain (Liddy Shriver Sarcoma Initiative 2017). A malignant spindle cell tumor is formed in the brain leading to the production of immature bones called osteoid. The degree of malignancy depends on the histology of the tumor. The long-term care of osteosarcoma patients is challenging and it is best undertaken in a multidisciplinary cancer centre. Histological subtypes of the tumor includes fibroblastic, osteoblastic and small cell (Miller et al. 2013). Reference Arthritis.org. (2017).What is Osteoarthritis?. [online] Available at: https://www.arthritis.org/about-arthritis/types/osteoarthritis/what-is-osteoarthritis.php [Accessed 8 Feb. 2017]. Birt, M.C., Anderson, D.W., Toby, E.B. and Wang, J., 2017. Osteomyelitis: Recent advances in pathophysiology and therapeutic strategies.Journal of Orthopaedics,14(1), pp.45-52. Hayes, A.W. and Kruger, C.L. eds., 2014.Hayes' principles and methods of toxicology. CRC Press. Horn, A.S., 2014. Conformational aspects of the inhibition of neuronal uptake of noradrenaline by tricyclic antidepressants.Frontiers in catecholamine research. Usdin, E., Snyder, SH (eds.), pp.411-413. Liddy Shriver Sarcoma Initiative. (2017).Osteosarcoma Cancer: Diagnosis, Treatment, Research Support. [online] Available at: https://sarcomahelp.org/osteosarcoma.html [Accessed 8 Feb. 2017]. Milas-Ahi?, J., Prus, V., Kardum, Ã… ½. and Kova?evi?, I., 2014. Pathophysiology of osteoporosis.Reumatizam,61(2), pp.65-69. Miller, I., Kent, P.M. and Finney, J., 2013. The pathophysiology of primary bone tumors in young adults and children.Current Problems in,37, pp.172-180. Mobasheri, A. and Batt, M., 2016. An update on the pathophysiology of osteoarthritis.Annals of Physical and Rehabilitation Medicine,59(5), pp.333-339. Niams.nih.gov. (2017).Fast Facts About Osteonecrosis. [online] Available at: https://www.niams.nih.gov/health_info/osteonecrosis/osteonecrosis_ff.asp [Accessed 8 Feb. 2017]. Nordestgaard, B.G. and Varbo, A., 2014. Triglycerides and cardiovascular disease.The Lancet,384(9943), pp.626-635. Rai, V. and Raghavan, L., 2015. Transdermal Drug Delivery.Percutaneous Penetration Enhancers Chemical Methods in Penetration Enhancement: Drug Manipulation Strategies and Vehicle Effects, p.151. ResearchGate. (2017).Immunopathology of organ transplantation. [online] Available at: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/10583806_Immunopathology_of_organ_transplantation [Accessed 8 Feb. 2017]. Smith, Y. (2017).Triglycerides - What do they do?. [online] News-Medical.net. Available at: https://www.news-medical.net/health/Triglycerides-What-do-they-do.aspx [Accessed 8 Feb. 2017]. Sturla, S.J., Boobis, A.R., FitzGerald, R.E., Hoeng, J., Kavlock, R.J., Schirmer, K., Whelan, M., Wilks, M.F. and Peitsch, M.C., 2014. Systems toxicology: from basic research to risk assessment.Chemical research in toxicology,27(3), pp.314-329 Walters, K.A., 2013. Transdermal drug delivery.Routes of Drug Administration: Topics in Pharmacy,2, p.78.